["Impossible to be part of this system any longer": the expulsion of neuroscientists from Frankfurt am Main (1933-1939)]. / "Impossible to be part of this system any longer": die Vertreibung von Neurowissenschaftlerinnen und Neurowissenschaftlern aus Frankfurt am Main (1933­1939).

In the 1920s, the situation of neuropsychiatry in Frankfurt was characterized by the rivalry between two institutions (Edinger Institute and University Neurology Clinic), two subdisciplines (neurology and psychiatry), and the physicians Kurt Goldstein (1878-1965) and Karl Kleist (1879-1960). After the National Socialists' assumption of power, university neuropsychiatric institutions in Frankfurt showed the highest number of dismissed university teachers and personnel in the German Reich. In neurology and psychiatry alone the university lost almost 50% of the personnel. Among those persecuted on racist grounds was Leo Alexander (1905-1985), who carried out genetic studies before 1933, prepared the "Alexander Reports" on behalf of the Allies after the Second World War, and was one of the prosecution counselors in the Nuremberg Doctors' Trial. His colleague Walther Riese (1890-1976) fled via France also to the USA and dedicated himself to the historical and ethical principles of neurology. Alice Rosenstein (1898-1991) was the first woman to specialize in neuroradiology and neurosurgery. In contrast to her male colleagues who were also dismissed in 1933, she committed herself to psychiatry after her arrival in North America and belonged to the early campaigners for the rights of homosexuals. Ernst (1905-1965) and Berta (1906-1995) Scharrer finally left Germany because of the prevailing political climate in the country. They excelled as co-founders of neuroendocrinology and neuroimmunology on the other side of the Atlantic.

Professor Bajram Preza (1923-2007), a leading academic figure in the Albanian medicine.

Professor Bajram Preza was a career neurologist with a strong background in research both in neurology and psychiatry. After a period of study in Sarajevo in the immediate post-WWII period, he completed his studies in medicine and a fellowship in neuropsychiatry in Nizhny Novgorod (formerly Gorky). A highly prolific author, he holds the laurels of the first medical dissertation sustained in the University of Tirana (1958) as well as for publishing the first student's textbook on medicine (Semiotics of nervous diseases, 1964) in Albania. He led the Clinic of Neurology in Tirana for more than three decades, while relentlessly lecturing, publishing and editing a diversity of medical papers, translations and original works that have shaped the professional education of entire generations of future Albanian physicians.

Historical forerunners of neuropsychiatry: The psychiatric works of Albert W. Adamkiewicz (1850-1921).

Albert Wojciech Adamkiewicz (1850-1821) was a Polish neurologist and researcher who is best known for his description of the so-called Adamkiewicz-artery. In contrast to his achievements in neurology, his research in psychiatry from his time in Vienna (1891-1921) is commonly overlooked. We examined all titles of his publications from 1891 to 1921 and provided a close reading of those works that were related to his research on the neural basis of mental phenomena and disorders. We demonstrate that, in later stages of his scientific career, Adamkiewicz critically engaged with contemporary positions in psychiatry and the psychogenic explanation of mental disorders. He developed a theory based on his neurological research, correlating central theorems of late-nineteenth-century psychiatry to neural networks in the human cortex. These achievements make him a historical forerunner of neuropsychiatric concepts of mental phenomena and disorders.

A historical approach to hereditary spastic paraplegia.

Hereditary spastic paraplegia (HSP) is a group of rare neurological disorders, characterised by their extreme heterogeneity in both their clinical manifestations and genetic origins. Although Charles-Prosper Ollivier d'Angers (1796-1845) sketched out a suggestive description in 1827, it was Heinrich Erb (1840-1921) who described the clinical picture, in 1875, for "spastic spinal paralysis". Jean-Martin Charcot (1825-1893) began teaching the disorder as a clinical entity this same year. Adolf von Strümpell (1853-1925) recognised its hereditary nature in 1880 and Maurice Lorrain (1867-1956) gained posthumous fame for adding his name to that of Strümpell and forming the eponym after his 1898 thesis, the first review covering twenty-nine affected families. He benefited from the knowledge accumulated over a dozen years on this pathology by his teacher, Fulgence Raymond (1844-1910). Here I present a history across two centuries, leading to the clinical, anatomopathological, and genetic description of hereditary spastic paraplegia which today enables a better understanding of the causative cellular dysfunctions and makes it possible to envisage effective treatment.

Hommage à Georges Serratrice (1927-2019).

TITLE: Hommage à Georges Serratrice (1927-2019). ABSTRACT: Il y a tout juste un an disparaissait Georges Serratrice, un des pères fondateurs de la myologie française. Il était grand temps que les Cahiers de Myologie honorent sa mémoire. Jean Pouget, son disciple et ami très proche, lui rend ici un hommage vibrant et tout empli d'humanité.

The earliest experimental convulsions by Joseph Priestley in 1766 friendship with Benjamin Franklin.

In 1766, Joseph Priestley (1733-1804) was the first to systematically demonstrate the universal convulsive effect of an electrical discharge applied to the head of all the several species studied. We here republish his overlooked experiments, which often resulted in death, and which ante date the scientific studies of the electrical functions of the brain, the role of "discharges" in seizures, and experimental epilepsy by about a century. Priestley's studies of electricity were influenced by those of Benjamin Franklin (1706-1790), who became a good friend during Franklin's prolonged period in London between 1757 and 1775. Both were elected Fellows of the Royal Society and both were awarded the Copley Medal of that Society. Priestley's experiments are relevant to the history of epilepsy and neuropsychiatry, and to the modern study of sudden unexplained death in epilepsy (SUDEP).

From Charcot's descriptions to the current understanding of neuropsychiatric symptoms in multiple sclerosis.

Neuropsychiatric disorders in multiple sclerosis have been known since the original clinicopathological description by Charcot in the late nineteenth century. Charcot, in the last decades of his life, became involved in the field of neuropsychiatry. This produced a battle between rival schools in the era that still echoes to this day. Charcot's intuition, including the line of thought of Babinski, one of his most famous disciples, was that there was a connection between mood disorders and many of the diseases of the nervous system. Medicine's concern with establishing a relationship between mood disorders and disease stems from the ancient and middle ages with references found in the Hippocratic doctrine. However, it was only in the second half of the nineteenth and early twentieth century, with Charcot's discoveries, that this discussion was established in a structured way, laying the foundations of neuropsychiatry.

[Overview of the Development of Psychiatric Care in Karlovac - Due to the 50th Anniversary Since the Establishment of the Department of Neuropsychiatry in the General Hospital Karlovac (1969 - 2019)] / Pregled razvoja psihijatrijske sluzbe u Karlovcu ­ U povodu 50. godisnjice osnivanja Odjela za neuropsihijatriju Opce bolnice Karlovac (1969. ­ 2019.)

The newly established Department of neuropsychiatry of the Medical Center of Karlovac opened on November 3rd, 1969, thus enabling a comprehensive and modern approach to people with mental disorders. Prior to its opening, the first stage of the hospital in Svarca was completed. Up until that point, psychiatric care had been inadequate despite the enthusiasm of individuals, such as Dr. Andrija Stampar who worked in Karlovac in 1912 and 1913. The first decade of the Department's work marked the overload of "mixing" psychiatric and neurological cases, as well as the leadership of the scholar, Prim. Dr. Drazen Neimarevic. The establishment of separate departments in 1980 showed improvement in the working conditions, and further steps were made with the formation of day hospitals for alcoholism and psychotherapy. Better access to patients was achieved due to the independence of psychiatric care in 1994. The start of the 21st century saw innovative breakthroughs with the opening of the first unit for treating sexual disorders in Croatia and the establishment of one of the first mobile psychiatric teams within the national implementation of Community-based psychiatry model. In honor of the 50th anniversary of the establishment of the Department of neuropsychiatry in the General Hospital Karlovac, it is important to give thanks to everyone who contributed to the development of psychiatric care. Following the foundations that were laid, it is necessary to adapt and improve the approaches to those with mental disorders, with the aim to provide recovery and destigmatization. Finally, following the development in Croatian psychiatry and parallel activities in similar institutions, the overview of "psychiatry in Karlovac" can be used as a representative sample of the development in other institutions and similar county/regional centers.

From Charcot's descriptions to the current understanding of neuropsychiatric symptoms in multiple sclerosis / Das descrições de Charcot à compreensão atual dos sintomas neuropsiquiátricos na esclerose múltipla

ABSTRACT Neuropsychiatric disorders in multiple sclerosis have been known since the original clinicopathological description by Charcot in the late nineteenth century. Charcot, in the last decades of his life, became involved in the field of neuropsychiatry. This produced a battle between rival schools in the era that still echoes to this day. Charcot's intuition, including the line of thought of Babinski, one of his most famous disciples, was that there was a connection between mood disorders and many of the diseases of the nervous system. Medicine's concern with establishing a relationship between mood disorders and disease stems from the ancient and middle ages with references found in the Hippocratic doctrine. However, it was only in the second half of the nineteenth and early twentieth century, with Charcot's discoveries, that this discussion was established in a structured way, laying the foundations of neuropsychiatry.

RESUMO Os distúrbios neuropsiquiátricos na esclerose múltipla são conhecidos desde a descrição clínico-patológica original de Charcot no final do século XIX. Charcot nas últimas décadas de sua vida se envolveu no campo da neuropsiquiatria. Isso produziu uma batalha de escolas rivais na época que ainda ecoa até hoje. A intuição de Charcot, incluindo a linha de pensamento de Babinski, um de seus discípulos mais famosos, foi a teoria correta da conexão entre os transtornos do humor e muitas das doenças do sistema nervoso. A preocupação da Medicina em estabelecer uma relação entre transtornos do humor e doenças vem das idades antiga e média, com referências encontradas na doutrina hipocrática. No entanto, foi apenas na segunda metade do século XIX e início do século XX que, com as descobertas de Charcot essa discussão foi realizada de maneira estruturada, estabelecendo os fundamentos da neuropsiquiatria.

Gogi (Word Meaning) Aphasia and Its Relation with Semantic Dementia.

In 1943, Tsuneo Imura, a neuropsychiatrist at Tokyo University, proposed a new aphasic syndrome and designated it as Gogi (word meaning) aphasia. According to Imura, it is characterized by (1) difficulty in comprehending spoken words despite good perception of sound, (2) disorders of expression due to loss of vocabulary and verbal paraphasia, (3) preserved ability of repetition, and (4) selective difficulty in reading and writing kanji (Japanese logographic character) with preserved ability of reading and writing kana (Japanese syllabic character). To be more specific, the difficulty in comprehending spoken words in Gogi aphasia is limited to substantive words as the name of the syndrome indicates, while comprehension of syntax remains unimpaired. Preserved repetition ability cannot be simply regarded as an automatic response, that is, echolalia, because the patient's attitude in repeating was quizzical, picking up the particular word he did not comprehend. Imura vaguely attributed the responsible lesion to the second and third temporal gyri on the left side. Although the general pattern of the syndrome can be placed in the category of transcortical sensory aphasia, its uniqueness as the syndrome still stands out. Another uniqueness of the syndrome is its characteristic pattern of dissociated kanji-kana difficulty in reading and writing. This linguistic symptomatology observed in Gogi aphasia was first introduced to the western academic world on a German neuropsychiatric journal by Panse and Shimoyama in 1955. Ever since, the existence of Gogi aphasia as an independent syndrome among disorders of spoken language has gradually gained international recognition. But whether the pattern of the kanji-kana dissociation described by Imura is an integral part of the syndrome remains unsettled. A recently proposed concept of semantic dementia suggests symptomatic continuation of word meaning loss with non-linguistic semantic memory loss.

Peduncular hallucinosis according to Jean Lhermitte.

Peduncular hallucinosis (PH) is a rare clinical syndrome with dream-like visual hallucinations intruding normal consciousness. It was initially reported in a 72-year-old woman by Jean Lhermitte in 1992. We uncovered the medical file of this patient with handwritten notes by Lhermitte and commented on it in the light of neurological knowledge that was common at that time. All along his career, Lhermitte has always been fascinated by consciousness disturbances, dreams and hallucinations. He had here the brilliant intuition of linking PH to awareness mechanisms located in the mesencephalic area. This PH case represented a good opportunity to him to emphasize the close relationships between neurology and psychiatry.

Citing Hippocrates on depression in epilepsy.

OBJECTIVES: When writing about the bidirectional etiological relationship between depression and epilepsy, neuropsychiatrists often cite Lewis (1934) [Lewis AJ. Melancholia: a historical review. Journal of Mental Science 1934; 80: 1-42] who cited Hippocrates - namely, "melancholics ordinarily become epileptics, and epileptics, melancholics". In this paper, the complicated reference for this citation from Lewis (1934) was critically reappraised. METHODS: The Greek-Latin edition of Hippocratic writings by Ermerins to which Lewis (1934) referred and most volumes of the standard Greek-English edition of the Hippocratic writings in The Loeb Classical Library were freely available as facsimile pdf documents in the Internet Archive (archive.org). RESULTS: Melancholia (i.e., "the black bile disease") is defined as a persistent mental state of fear and sadness ("Aphorisms", section 6, aphorism 23) which appears more consistent with a dysthymic disorder or depressive personality disorder than an acute (episodic) depressive disorder. Confusingly, the term melancholia also signifies a humoral etiology, namely a surplus of black bile, which causes several distinct diseases including epilepsy (aphorism vi/56). The quote addressing the conversion of melancholia into epilepsy and vice versa was taken from the writing "Epidemics" (book 6, section 8, paragraph 31). The famous treatise on epilepsy, "De Morbo Sacro", does not mention melancholia but instead, attributes epilepsy to two other humors: phlegm and (yellow) bile. This writing proposes an etiological relationship between (inherited) personality and epilepsy, wherein a phlegmatic temperament represents an epilepsy risk while a bilious (choleric) temperament offers protection against epilepsy. SIGNIFICANCE: With only a few clarifications, the neuropsychiatric quotation from Hippocrates and the reference to Lewis (1934) could generally be approved as appropriate. However, the proper framework of the quote seems to be personality and not mood. A more precise reference to a standard edition of "Epidemics" book 6 is also suggested.

El Manicomio Provicial de Málaga en el primer tercio del siglo XX: la utopía que (no) pudo ser / The Malaga provincial mental asylum (Spain) in the first third of the 20th century: the utopia that was (not) to be

Durante el primer tercio del siglo XX en España acontecieron cambios importantes en la asistencia a la locura. Varios factores influyeron en el desarrollo de las modificaciones en torno al discurso y práctica de una nueva disciplina psiquiátrica: una generación de médicos interesados en la locura y relacionados con la Junta de Ampliación de Estudios, organizaciones científicas como los Archivos de Neurobiología y el clima político progresista de la Segunda República, entre otros. El objetivo de este trabajo es visibilizar estrategias de cambio en el tratamiento de la locura en el psiquiátrico provincial de Málaga. Para ello, señalaré, por un lado, las diferentes reformas que el edificio necesitó y la relación de éstas con las prácticas asistenciales; y por otro, los intentos de reforma que llevaron a cabo Miguel Prados Such y Pedro Ortiz Ramos como profesionales de la neuropsiquiatría. Analizaré, finalmente, las relaciones entre el personal subalterno, los psiquiatras y la institución, mostrando las dinámicas de asimilación y/o rechazo de medidas concretas que pretendían mejorar las condiciones de los pacientes ingresados

During the first third of the 20th Century in Spain, many reforms happened in the attendance to the madness. Several factors had an influence in the introduction of fundamental changes in the discourse and practice of a new psychiatric discipline: the interest in insanity of a generation of doctors with links to the Junta de Ampliación de Estudios (Board for Advanced Studies), scientific organisations like the Archivos de Neurobiología (Archives of Neurobiology) and the political climate in the Second Spanish Republic, among others. The aim of this study is to shed light on these strategies for change in the treatment of insanity in the Malaga provincial psychiatric hospital. To this end, I will discuss the necessary alterations made to the building itself and their relation with health care practices, in addition to the attempts to introduce reforms by neuropsychiatric professionals like Miguel Prados Such and Pedro Ortiz Ramos. Finally, I will analyse relations among support staff, psychiatrists and the institution, to appraise the dynamics of assimilation and/or rejection of specific measures designed to improve the conditions of patients admitted to it

Six Landmark Case Reports Essential for Neuropsychiatric Literacy.

Well-described clinical case reports have been a core component of the neuropsychiatry literature and have led to: a deepened understanding of brain-behavior relationships and neuropsychiatric phenomenology, new paths for research, and compelling material for physicians who are studying neurology and psychiatry. Six landmark neuropsychiatry cases were selected for being well described, paradigmatic, and illuminating of brain-behavior correlations: Phineas Gage, Louis Victor Leborgne ("Tan"), Auguste Deter, Solomon Shereshevsky ("S"), "JP," and Henry Gustav Molaison ("HM"). Each case and its neuropsychiatric lessons are summarized from primary sources, highlighting some less appreciated aspects. Case reports continue to be a valuable resource for neuropsychiatric education. Yet only four of the 10 highest impact factor psychiatry journals accept case reports for publication.

Gilles de la Tourette syndrome as a paradigmatic neuropsychiatric disorder.

Gilles de la Tourette syndrome is a chronic and complex tic disorder accompanied by specific behavioral problems in the majority of patients. With its multifaceted interplay between motion and emotion, this condition is a paradigmatic example of the science and art of clinical neuropsychiatry. This review article encompasses the clinical phenomenology of motor and vocal tics and associated sensory experiences (premonitory urges), as well as the behavioral spectrum of the most common comorbidities, including obsessive-compulsive disorder, attention-deficit and hyperactivity disorder, affective symptoms, and impulsivity. Knowledge of the contributions of both tics and behavioral problems to patients' health-related quality of life across the lifespan should assist treating clinicians in formulating a targeted management plan. Although the exact pathophysiology of Gilles de la Tourette syndrome remains elusive, research into therapeutic interventions has expanded the range of available interventions across multiple domains. A thorough understanding of the neurology and psychiatry of this condition is of key importance to meet the needs of this patient population, from the formulation of an accurate diagnosis to the implementation of effective treatment strategies.